Typology: A Hermeneutical Key for a Unified Sense of the Whole Scripture Testifying of Christ

by Dan Morley

In the last two decades, a method for reading and interpreting the Bible has been less prominently solidified. Some would say that a single person’s individual interpretation, no matter how disconnected from historic orthodoxy, is legitimate and that individual reason is the authority of what is true. Others would recognize the necessity of having a consistent hermeneutical method, however, they would limit that interpretation to the literal-historical meaning and stop there. The Reformed have agreed that the true and full sense of scripture is not many but one sense (2LCF 1.9), and that one sense includes both the literal meaning and the spiritual meaning that transcends the human authors. The issue then in understanding the relation of the Old Testament to the New Testament is what is the hermeneutical key to understanding the unified sense of the whole Bible? This argument is that Typology is the hermeneutical key to understanding that unified sense of the whole of Scripture and how all of Scripture is about Christ and all that He brings.

What is Typology

Typology falls under a Christocentric method of redemptive-historical interpretation of scripture as a unified whole with an eschatological orientation. The idea of typology is a preordained representative relation that an Old Testament type bears to a corresponding antitype in the New Testament.[1] Graeme Goldsworthy explains that: “Typology is a way of describing the comprehensive nature of this prefigurement of the fulfillment of Christ.”[2] A type is a person, institution, event, or other thing that points to something different (other) and greater. It is God’s revelation in the Old Testament of Christ and all that he brings (His kingdom and covenant) in shadowy form by way of analogy of proportionality through copies which resemble and point beyond themselves to their perfect fulfillment. Benjamin Keach explains that a type is “the images or figures of things present, or to come; especially the actions and histories of the Old Testament, respecting such as prefigured Christ our Saviour in his actions, life, passion, death, and the glory that followed.”[3]

A piece of furniture ordered from IKEA comes with a picture of the finished product. That picture is not the finished product itself. When you open the instructions, there is a list of all the separate parts that make up the finished product and further step-by-step pictures of the working components of the end product.[4] Similarly, typology gives a picture of the end from the beginning. It is first revealed in a partial and obscure way, and then revealed by farther steps, like the steps of a dimly lit stairway. Genesis 3:15 reveals the promise of the skull-crushing seed of the woman, which scripture then reveals what that Messianic figure and His benefits look like through farther steps. As the IKEA instructions further list the working parts, scripture further shows the working components of the Messianic skull-crusher typologically through federal heads, prophets, priests, kings, redemption, sacrificial atonement, and more.

What Typology is Not

Typology is not allegory. An allegorical interpretation would be to take an Old Testament truth and attempt to draw whatever the interpreter desires to make of it without first seeing what Old Testament truth it symbolized.[5] Because of an abuse of allegorizing and spiritualizing, some may hesitate to use a typological interpretation. The right method takes account of redemptive-historical fulfillment, the other does not. Greg Beale proposes five criteria for determining what is a type: “(1) close analogical correspondence of truths about people, events, or institutions; (2) historicity; (3) a pointing-forwardness; (4) escalation in meaning between correspondences; (5) and retrospection.”[6] Consequently, typology must be concerned with Christ, His covenant, and His kingdom.

The antitype is something other than the type; they are two different things. The blood of bulls and goats was not the blood of Christ, and therefore the forgiveness was not the forgiveness afforded by the blood of Christ’s once-for-all oblation; a sweet-smelling aroma. A type is not the thing typified, just as the shadow of a man is not the man himself. Types are “a shadow of things to come, but the substance is of Christ” (Col. 2:17). The mystery of Christ in shadow form was partially and obscurely revealed in the Old Testament before Christ (Eph. 3:3-7). Types are inferior to the antitype. When the truth is fulfilled by the antitype, the type ceases. A return to animal blood oblation denies the meaning of Christ’s blood, which was offered with human suffering and divine efficacy.

Is Typology Biblical?

The best way to interpret Scripture is with the Scripture itself (2LCF 1.9). Scripture itself tells us (on Divine authority) that the Old Testament speaks of Christ. In the gospel of John, for example, it is written that Jesus said, “You search the Scriptures… and these are they which testify of Me” (Jn. 5:39). Sacred Scripture explicitly reveals that the Old Testament testifies of Christ. The apostle Paul calls Adam a “type” of Christ (Rom. 5:14). The Greek word from which “type” is derived refers to an impression, mark, copy, image, form, figure, pattern, example, or model.[7] The same word is used in the book of Hebrews referring to the “pattern” that was shown for the construction of the tabernacle which was as a copy and shadow of the heavenly things (Heb. 8:5). The apostle Paul uses this word in Romans to refer to a person that prefigured an antitype, and in Hebrews to refer to a building that prefigured an antitype. Similar to how the impressions or marks left on paper from a typewriter are types (from typing), types in the Old Testament served as a prefigured shape of Christ, His suffering, and glories.

The New Testament presents a divinely sanctioned hermeneutic producing infallible New Testament commentary of the Old Testament’s focus being the person and work of Jesus Christ. Christ is the central theme of the entire Bible and this can be seen with clarity because the New Testament repeatedly interprets the Old Testament and brings to light what had been in the shadows, and announces that the Old Testament messianic promises have been fulfilled in Christ, His kingdom, and the New Covenant. The Old Testament offers the key to the correct interpretation of the New Testament, and the New Testament provides a commentary on the Old Testament, which is in shadow form, symbolic, and typical of spiritual realities that are presented in full light in the New Testament.[8]

How Typology Works

A type first signifies, then typifies. The real component is the sign and what it signifies. The rational component is the sign as a type and the antitype itself. An Old Testament person, institution, event, or other thing is a sign that signifies a truth. This truth carries through the history of redemption and revelation and finds its realization, relation, or fulfillment in Christ.[9] The Old Testament truth is, typologically, a symbol. A proper study of the symbolism finds the exact truth conveyed to the Old Testament people of God and then subsequently, finds future realization at a higher level in the New Testament. The sign and its signification have their own meaning and purpose in their immediate and provisional context, which serves as the basis for the revelation of something greater in a messianic context. A type ultimately terminates in the antitype fulfillment. Once the IKEA furniture is assembled, the instruction manual with an obscure and cryptic title is no longer needed. In fact, to put away the furniture and return to the instruction picture would be useless. So also, to put away Christ and his kingdom as antitype fulfillment would be a reversal in the redemptive-historical outworking of God’s redemptive purpose. Some examples of typology will be examined to help illustrate how the Old Testament typologically testifies of Christ, His kingdom, and covenant; namely, Noah, manna, sacrificial goats, and the Old Covenant.

Noah a Type of Christ

Noah was a type of Christ.[10] Noah was a saviour of the world who signified salvation from judgement into a new-creation land. Noah was a righteous man and a federal head over the human race (Gen. 6:9; 7:1; 9:1-7). He was a preacher of righteousness who called sinners to repentance. A remnant of humanity was preserved through Noah by means of the ark, which brought them safely through the waters of judgement into a new land in an imperfect and typical new-creation (stabilized creation, but sin still remained). Noah was not the skull-crushing seed of the woman. Noah was not the promised Messiah who would bring eternal salvation. Christ is the antitype who brings eternal salvation (1 Pet. 3:20-22). Christ (the substance) is righteous and a federal head over God’s elect. He was a preacher of righteousness who came to call sinners to repentance. The elect, who are united to Christ and His death, burial, and resurrection, are brought safely through the waters of judgement into a new land: a perfect, undefiled, incorruptible, unfading, unshakable, indefectible new creation. Noah built an ark according to the commandment of God. Christ builds his church and did everything according to the commandment received from the Father. The ungodly who despised Noah suffered destruction by water. The ungodly who reject Christ will suffer everlasting torment by fire. Noah sent forth a dove to verify if the waters of judgement were abated. Christ sends forth the Spirit (analogically referred to in the likeness of a dove) who comforts believing souls that the wrath of God is appeased and His justice satisfied. Noah was a temporal and imperfect Saviour of the world who typified Christ, the perfect Saviour of the world and only redeemer of God’s elect.

Manna a Type of Christ

Christ (and his graces) is the true and substantial Manna (Jn. 6:50; Rev. 2:17). The manna (the food prepared from heaven) that fell in the wilderness signified nourishment for another day of life. Manna typifies the incarnation of Christ, who is the bread of life that comes down from heaven. The antitype is Christ our Redeemer who came down from heaven by way of his state of humiliation where the Word (the Son of God), being eternal God equal in power and glory with the Father, took to himself a body and assumed human nature, being born of the virgin Mary, in a low condition, made under the law, underwent the miseries of this life, suffered the cursed death of the cross, and was buried. In Christ’s exaltation, He was raised from the dead, ascended on high, seated at the Father’s right hand with all authority, and rules by His Word and Spirit. Christ as our Redeemer executes the office of prophet by revealing to us, by His Word and Spirit, the will of God for our salvation (BC Q. 27). Jesus Christ is the Bread of Life that comes down from heaven (Jn. 6:22-40).

There are numerous ways in which manna as a sign signifies realities that are realized in Christ as the antitype.[11] The manna was mysterious at first as they did not know what it was; when the Word was in the world, the world did not know Him (Jn. 1:10-11). The manna was food that descended from heaven; Jesus Christ is the Bread from heaven (Jn. 6:35). The manna was round in shape and form; the divinity of Christ is without beginning or end. The manna was a gift given freely without price; Jesus Christ is the gift of God given freely (Jn. 4:10; Rom. 3:24). The manna was pleasant and sweet in taste; “Oh, taste and see that the Lord is good” (Ps. 34:8). The manna was ground or beaten for the nourishment of His people; Christ was stricken, smitten, afflicted, wounded, and bruised for the justification of His people (Is. 53:4-11). The manna was only given to the Israelites; the Bread of Life is only given to believers, the spiritual Israel. The manna was gathered daily during the six days God appointed, but none was to be found on the sabbath; Christ must be sought in the time God has appointed. After the appointed time, when believers will enjoy glorious sabbath rest, for the unbeliever there will be no Bread of Life available. The manna was kept in a golden pot before God in the Holy of Holies; the glorified human nature of Jesus Christ has ascended and is seated at the right hand of the Father in the heavenly Most Holy Place (Heb. 9:12, 24).  The manna was not the Bread of Life; Christ is the Bread of Life, something different and greater. The manna was food for the body; Christ is food for the soul. If the Israelites refused the manna, they would have perished in the wilderness. Those who refuse Christ will perish, but those who receive Christ by faith will live forever (Jn. 6:58).

Sacrificial Goats a Type of Christ

Another example of typology is the sign of the sacrificial goat, both the stipulations for the animal chosen and the truth its purpose signified. These sacrificial animals had horns. Horns signified kingdom strength. Christ, the only redeemer of God’s elect, in his kingly office, is the perfect and final king. The goats were tamely brought to slaughter; Christ was meek and mild like a lamb led to the slaughter (Is. 53:7). The goats were males without blemish; Jesus was without blemish and perfectly holy. The Israelites’ sins were laid on the head of the goat; the sins of the elect were laid on Christ (1 Pet. 2:24). The sacrificial goat was slain as a substitute; Christ was crucified as a substitutionary sacrifice.  The slaughtered goat’s head, body, and fat was laid on the fire; Christ suffered exceeding sorrow in both body and soul (Matt. 26:38). The burnt offering was called a sweet-smelling aroma; Christ’s sacrifice was a sweet-smelling aroma that appeased God’s wrath and satisfied divine justice (Eph. 5:2). The sins of God’s elect are placed on Christ who is sacrificed as a substitute according to His humanity bearing our sins. He is not only the sacrifice, but is also the High Priest as the Person of the Son, causing the sacrifice to be of infinite value. On the day of atonement (Lev. 16), a sacrificial goat was killed as a sin offering, and a second live goat functioned as a scapegoat which was taken away bearing their iniquities confessed over it. The scapegoat was released into the wilderness bearing the people’s iniquity as a substitute. Matthew Poole articulated that: “And here the goat being neglected by all men, and exposed to many hardships and hazards from wild beasts, which were numerous there, might further signify Christ’s being forsaken, both by God and by men, even by his own disciples, and the many dangers and sufferings he underwent.”[12] The sins of God’s elect are taken away, abolished, forgotten, and never to return. The redeemed now “escape alive” because Christ was raised from the dead and ever lives to intercede for His people: “Therefore He is also able to save to the uttermost those who come to God through Him, since He always lives to make intercession for them” (Heb.7:25).

The sacrificial goat’s real, immediate, and temporal purpose as a sign signifies purification. As such, it did offer an external cleansing which was temporal and for holy living in the land of Canaan as a geo-political theocratic nation; however, it did not purify the conscience or deliver from eternal condemnation. The sign typified substitutionary penal sacrifice and pointed beyond itself to something other (not a goat) and something greater (perfect and eternal purification and forgiveness). The antitype is Christ (Heb 9:14-28). Christ’s substitutionary shedding of His own precious blood and pouring out of His life satisfied divine justice for the purification of conscience and forgiveness of sin as the sins of His people were imputed to Him and paid for in full, never to be recalled, never to condemn. Our Great High Priest has declared “it is finished” (Jn. 19:30). Christ’s once-for-all sacrifice thus terminates animal sacrifices.

The Old Covenant a Type of the New Covenant

The Old Covenant was a type in shadow of the substantial New Covenant. To be specific, the Old Covenant is in reference to God’s covenants for the kingdom of Israel as delivered to Abraham, Moses, and David. God entered into a covenant with Abraham, which was a covenant regarding multiplied offspring, inheritance of the land of Canaan, and the blessings of the nations through Abraham’s Seed (Gen. 12, 15, 17). This was a covenant of temporal blessings subsequent to obedience. When this covenant was ratified, God swore an oath that he would fulfill His part. This is a covenant that governs the kingdom of Israel as a geo-political theocratic nation. It also contains God’s promise of the coming of the Messiah through whom the nations would be blessed. It does not promise the blessings of Christ to Abraham’s multiplied offspring; it offers the coming of the Messiah according to the flesh. God further entered into a covenant relationship with Abraham’s multiplied offspring (Israel) to govern their life in the land of Canaan (Exod. 19:3-6; Dt. 4:1; 6:3; 8:1; 12:1). The Mosaic Covenant would function to govern Abraham’s multiplied offspring in the promised land of Canaan as an ethnic people under God. The Mosaic covenant still required a federal head. Finally, God entered into covenant with King David (2 Sam. 7:4-16). The Davidic Covenant would focus covenant obedience on one person, a king, through whom the blessings promised in the Abrahamic covenant would come to the kingdom of Israel upon covenant obedience.

While these covenants are temporal rewards for Israel in the promised land, they point to what Paul in Ephesians calls a mystery, namely Jews and Gentiles reconciled to God and to each other (the nations being blessed) through Christ the mediator and federal head of the New Covenant, who is the promised seed of Abraham through whom the nations would be blessed. Christ obeyed God’s law. Christ secured eternal rest and inaugurated His eternal, unshakable kingdom in the new-creation land. Jesus, the son of David, is the representative through whom covenant blessings come to His people. Christ, His covenant, and kingdom are different and greater than the Old Covenant within the kingdom of Israel. This New Covenant is the Covenant of Grace, which governs and regulates Christ’s permanent, eternal, spiritual Kingdom.

 The kingdom of Israel was a visible, tangible, idealized history that portrayed a future, permanent, and perfect covenant relation between God and His people in a spiritual kingdom. The kingdom of Israel was not God’s idealized ultimate plan, rather, from the beginning, God’s unchanging redemptive purpose (on the foundation of the Covenant of Redemption) has been a redeemed people united in Christ in a new heaven and new earth in a beatific state by the light of glory (the city of God[13]) glorifying God and enjoying Him forever in indefectible blessedness and fullness of joy. The kingdom of Christ in the heavenly, eternal city of God is both different and greater than the kingdom of Israel in an earthly, temporal city. The covenant which regulates the kingdom of Christ is both different and greater than the covenant which regulated the geo-political theocratic kingdom of Israel. The Old Covenant and the New Covenant are different (Jer. 31:31-32). The New Covenant is greater and more glorious than the Old Covenant (2 Cor. 3:7-11). The temporary Old Covenant becomes obsolete (terminates) with the New Covenant (Heb. 8:13).

Conclusion

A biblical type, like the impression a typewriter leaves on paper, is an Old Testament sign that signifies an Old Testament truth which prefigures and points forward to something different and greater. A biblical type can be a person, event, institution, or other thing (i.e., office in salvific history). The interpretive concept of “type” and “antitype” is explicitly demonstrated in the New Testament authors’ interpretation of the Old Testament. Sometimes the New Testament declares something to be a type, whereas other times the term “type” or “antitype” may not be stated, but the criteria are present without being explicitly stated as typology.  There is a single narrative plan of redemptive history to the glory of God woven through all of Scripture. The whole of the Bible is the revelation, by farther steps, of the promised skull-crushing seed of the woman; the Saviour of sinful mankind. To derail the intended purpose of anticipating the text’s fulfilment in Christ misses the point and the unity of Scripture. The one sense of Scripture includes both the literal meaning and the divinely intended spiritual meaning that transcends the human authors. Typology is a hermeneutical key to understanding that unified sense and how all of Scripture is about Christ and all that he brings to His covenant people.

[1] See Louis Berkhof, Principles of Biblical Interpretation: Sacred Hermeneutics (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1994), 145.

[2] Graeme Goldsworthy, Christ-Centered Biblical Theology: Hermeneutical Foundations and Principles (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2012), 173.

[3] Benjamin Keach, Preaching from the Types and Metaphors of the Bible (Grand Rapids: Kregel Publications, 1972), 226.

[4] The illustration of an IKEA manual was borrowed from Dr. Samuel Renihan in his IRBS Lectures in Covenant Theology, 2025.

[5] See Edmund P. Clowney, Preaching Christ in All of Scripture (Wheaton: Crossway, 2003), 32.

[6] G. K. Beale, Handbook on the New Testament Use of the Old Testament: Exegesis and Interpretation (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2012), 19.

[7] William Arndt et al., A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 1020.

[8] Berkhof. Principles of Biblical Interpretation, 137.

[9] See Clowney, Preaching Christ, 32.

[10] See Keach, Preaching from the Types, 972-973.

[11] Keach, Preaching from the Types, 356-58.

[12] Matthew Poole, A Commentary on the Holy Bible, vol 3, Matthew-Revelation (1685; repr., Carlisle: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1990), 232-33.

[13] Psalm 46; 87:1-3; Hebrews 11:10; 12:22-27; Revelation 21.